Innovation timelines for selected energy technologies and artificial neural networks, 1875-2025

Notes

CCGT = combined-cycle gas turbine power plant; PEM = proton exchange membrane; US = United States. Invention refers to the first instance of a technology that meaningfully resembles its modern iteration. Mass market uptake refers to the time taken to achieve a 20% share of a relevant first-mover market, shown in parentheses. PEM electrolysis has not yet achieved that milestone.